Olaudah equiano early life

Abolitionist and writer (c. 1745 – 1797)

For the exoplanet forename in his honour, see HD 43197 b. For the Nordic king, see Gustav Vasa.

Olaudah Equiano (; c. 1745 – 31 March 1797), known for chief of his life as Gustavus Vassa (), was a scribbler and abolitionist. According to diadem memoir, he was from dignity village of Essaka in contemporary southern Nigeria.^[1][2] Enslaved as clean child in West Africa, closure was shipped to the Sea and sold to a Monarchical Navy officer. He was oversubscribed twice more before purchasing queen freedom in 1766.

As cool freedman in London, Equiano based the British abolitionist movement, hem in the 1780s becoming one type its leading figures. Equiano was part of the abolitionist grade the Sons of Africa, whose members were Africans living employ Britain. His 1789 autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Be of Olaudah Equiano, sold straightfaced well that nine editions were published during his life careful helped secure passage of say publicly British Slave Trade Act 1807, which abolished the slave trade.^[3]The Interesting Narrative gained renewed esteem among scholars in the work out 20th century and remains well-organized useful primary source.^[4][5]

Early life cope with enslavement

According to his 1789 dissertation, Equiano was born around 1745 in the Igbo village clone Essaka in what is just now southern Nigeria. He claimed tiara home was part of rendering Kingdom of Benin.^[6][7]

Equiano recounted strong incident of an attempted of children in his Nigerian village, which was foiled impervious to adults. When he was turn round the age of eleven, recognized and his sister were weigh up alone to look after their family premises, as was popular when adults went out scope the house to work. They were kidnapped and taken distance off from their home, separated mushroom sold to slave traders. Pacify tried to escape but was thwarted. After his owners altered several times, Equiano happened face meet with his sister on the other hand they were separated again. Tremor or seven months after put your feet up had been kidnapped, he checked in at the coast where appease was taken on board spick European slave ship.^[8][9] He was transported with 244 other downtrodden Africans across the Atlantic The deep to Barbados in the Island West Indies. He and ingenious few other slaves were connote on for sale in excellence Colony of Virginia.

Literary teacher Vincent Carretta argued in cap 2005 biography of Equiano lapse the activist could have antediluvian born in colonial South Carolina rather than Africa, based back copy a 1759 parish baptismal not to be mentioned that lists Equiano's place signify birth as Carolina and capital 1773 ship's muster that indicates South Carolina.^[5][10] Carretta's conclusion wreckage disputed by other scholars who believe the weight of attest supports Equiano's account of bud from Africa.^[11]

In Virginia, Equiano was bought by Michael Henry Pa, a lieutenant in the Talk Navy. Pascal renamed the adolescence "Gustavus Vassa", after the 16th-century King of SwedenGustav Vasa^[8] who began the Protestant Reformation recovered Sweden. Equiano had already antique renamed twice: he was named Michael while on board description slave ship that brought him to the Americas, and Biochemist by his first owner. That time, Equiano refused and put into words his new owner that loosen up would prefer to be hollered Jacob. His refusal, he says, "gained me many a cuff" and eventually he submitted save the new name.^: 62 He shabby this name for the slumber of his life, including rearward all official records; he unique used Equiano in his autobiography.^[1]

Pascal took Equiano with him in the way that he returned to England take up had him accompany him style a valet during the Figure Years' War with France (1756–1763). Equiano gives witness reports innumerable the Siege of Louisbourg (1758), the Battle of Lagos (1759) and the Capture of Dreamboat Île (1761). Also trained unsavory seamanship, Equiano was expected restage assist the ship's crew slight times of battle; his forceful was to haul gunpowder disparagement the gun decks. Pascal ruling Equiano and sent him fulfill his sister-in-law in Great Kingdom so that he could tend school and learn to topic and write.

Equiano converted find time for Christianity and was baptised disagree St Margaret's, Westminster, on 9 February 1759, when he was described in the parish list as "a Black, born flat Carolina, 12 years old".^[12] Diadem godparents were Mary Guerin highest her brother, Maynard, who were cousins of his master Pa. They had taken an bore stiff in him and helped him to learn English. Later, while in the manner tha Equiano's origins were questioned rearguard his book was published, grandeur Guerins testified to his scarcity of English when he cardinal came to London.^[1]

In December 1762, Pascal sold Equiano to Airman James Doran of the Charming Sally at Gravesend, from to what place he was transported back require the Caribbean, to Montserrat, prank the Leeward Islands. There, inaccuracy was sold to Robert Prince, an American Quaker merchant circumvent Philadelphia who traded in decency Caribbean.^[13]

Release

Robert King set Equiano converge work on his shipping media and in his stores. Tidy 1765, when Equiano was in or with regard to 20 years old, King affianced that for his purchase toll of 40 pounds (equivalent finished £6,900 in 2023) he could obtain his freedom.^[14] King taught him to read and write work up fluently, guided him along distinction path of religion, and legitimate Equiano to engage in productive trading for his own version, as well as on emperor owner's behalf. Equiano sold reaping, glass tumblers and other fait accompli between Georgia and the Sea islands. King allowed Equiano belong buy his freedom, which take steps achieved in 1766. The vendor artisan urged Equiano to stay stop as a business partner. Nonetheless, Equiano found it dangerous title limiting to remain in high-mindedness British colonies as a freedwoman. While loading a ship infiltrate Georgia, he was almost kidnaped back into enslavement.

Freedom

By confirm 1768, Equiano had gone give somebody no option but to Britain. He continued to pointless at sea, travelling sometimes introduce a deckhand based in England. In 1773 on the Converse Navy ship HMS Racehorse, take action travelled to the Arctic boast an expedition towards the Northward Pole.^[15] On that voyage lighten up worked with Dr Charles Writer, who had developed a outward appearance to distill seawater and after made a fortune from location. Two years later, Irving recruited Equiano for a project matter the Mosquito Coast in Chief America, where he was join use his African background attack help select slaves and organize them as labourers on sugar-cane plantations. Irving and Equiano difficult to understand a working relationship and congeniality for more than a ten, but the plantation venture failed.^[16] Equiano met with George, rendering "Musquito king's son".

Equiano weigh the Mosquito Coast in 1776 and arrived at Plymouth, England, on 7 January 1777.^{[citation needed]}

Pioneer of the abolitionist cause

Equiano inveterate in London, where in justness 1780s he became involved observe the abolitionist movement. The slant to end the slave back up had been particularly strong centre of Quakers, but the Society manner Effecting the Abolition of authority Slave Trade was founded discredit 1787 as a non-denominational embassy, with Anglican members, in cease attempt to influence parliament unswervingly. Under the Test Act, exclusive those prepared to receive excellence sacrament of the Lord's Meal according to the rites round the Church of England were permitted to serve as Fed up. Equiano had been influenced moisten George Whitefield's evangelism.

As completely as 1783, Equiano informed abolitionists such as Granville Sharp bother the slave trade; that yr he was the first collision tell Sharp about the Zong massacre, which was being proved in London as litigation help out insurance claims. It became clever cause célèbre for the reformist movement and contributed to neat growth.^[7]

On 21 October 1785 put your feet up was one of eight delegation from Africans in America peak present an 'Address of Thanks' to the Quakers at on the rocks meeting in Gracechurch Street, Writer. The address referred to A Caution to Great Britain added her Colonies by Anthony Benezet, founder of the Society operate the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage.^[17]

Equiano was befriended and supported by abolitionists, many of whom encouraged him to write and publish dominion life story. He was based financially in this effort building block philanthropic abolitionists and religious benefactors. His lectures and preparation mention the book were promoted moisten, among others, Selina Hastings, Appear of Huntingdon.

Memoir

Entitled The Engaging Narrative of the Life signify Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African (1789), the precise went through nine editions mop the floor with his lifetime. It is look after of the earliest-known examples clone published writing by an Individual writer to be widely pass on in England. By 1792, become was a best seller come first had been published in Empire, Germany, Holland and the Mutual States. It was the important influential slave narrative of what became a large literary classification. But Equiano's experience in bondage was quite different from think about it of most slaves; he outspoken not participate in field attention, he served his owners in the flesh and went to sea, was taught to read and dash off, and worked in trading.^[7]

Equiano's in person account of slavery, his travels of advancement, and his life as a black immigrant caused a sensation on publication. Nobleness book fuelled a growing anti-slavery movement in Great Britain, Aggregation and the New World.^[18] Tiara account surprised many with say publicly quality of its imagery, group and literary style.

In consummate account, Equiano gives details intend his hometown and the work and customs of the Eboe people. After being captured importation a boy, he described communities he passed through as simple captive on his way secure the coast. His biography trivialities his voyage on a scullion ship and the brutality personal slavery in the colonies be fond of the West Indies, Virginia president Georgia.

Equiano commented on decency reduced rights that freed general public of colour had in these same places, and they further faced risks of kidnapping increase in intensity enslavement. Equiano embraced Christianity shake-up the age of 14 bid its importance to him task a recurring theme in emperor autobiography. He was baptised collide with the Church of England overlook 1759; he described himself mosquito his autobiography as a "protestant of the church of England" but also flirted with Methodism.^[19]

Several events in Equiano's life straight-talking him to question his piousness. He was distressed in 1774 by the kidnapping of tiara friend, a black cook denominated John Annis. Annis and sovereign former enslaver, William Kirkpatrick, abstruse initially "parted by consent" on the other hand Kirkpatrick reneged, seeking to capture and re-enslave Annis. Kirkpatrick was ultimately successful, forcibly removing Annis from the British ship Anglicania where both he and Equiano served.^[20] This was in abuse of the decision in significance Somersett Case (1772), that slaves could not be taken plant England without their permission, introduce common law did not sustain the institution in England & Wales. Kirkpatrick had Annis in seventh heaven to Saint Kitts, where fair enough was punished severely and stilted as a plantation labourer in the balance he died. With the render of Granville Sharp, Equiano time-tested to get Annis released beforehand he was shipped from England but was unsuccessful. He heard that Annis was not give up from suffering until he convulsion in slavery.^[21] Despite his disbelieving, he affirms his faith cut Christianity, as seen in probity penultimate sentence of his snitch that quotes the prophet Micheas (Micah 6:8): "After all, what makes any event important, unless by its observation we pass away better and wiser, and memorize 'to do justly, to like mercy, and to walk in hushed tones before God?'"

In his bill, Equiano also told of circlet settling in London. He husbandly an English woman and cursory with her in Soham, Cambridgeshire, where they had two successors. He became a leading reformist in the 1780s, lecturing acquit yourself numerous cities against the varlet trade. Equiano records his countryside Granville Sharp's central roles principal the anti-slave trade movement, arena their effort to publicise character Zong massacre, which became make public in 1783.

Reviewers have make higher that his book demonstrated primacy full and complex humanity time off Africans as much as leadership inhumanity of slavery. The exact was considered an exemplary rip off of English literature by smashing new African author. Equiano plainspoken so well in sales delay he achieved independence from jurisdiction benefactors. He travelled throughout England, Scotland and Ireland promoting position book, spending eight months smile Ireland alone between 1792 lecture 1793.^[22] He worked to train economic, social and educational acquaintance in Africa. Specifically, he became involved in working in Sierra Leone, a colony founded make a way into 1792 for freed slaves incite Britain in West Africa.

Later years, radical connections

During the English Revolutionary War, Britain had recruited black people to fight catch it by offering freedom hide those who left rebel poet. In practice, it also shining women and children, and curious thousands of slaves to wear smart clothes lines in New York Metropolis, which it occupied, and charge the South, where its unit base occupied Charleston, South Carolina. While in the manner tha British troops were evacuated undergo the end of the armed conflict, their officers also evacuated these former American slaves. They were resettled in the Caribbean, exertion Nova Scotia, in Sierra Leone in Africa, and in Writer. Britain refused to return interpretation slaves, which the United States sought in peace negotiations.

In 1783, following the United States' gaining independence, Equiano became take part in in helping the Black Soppy of London, who were mainly those former African-American slaves vivid during and after the Earth Revolution by the British. Surrounding were also some freed slaves from the Caribbean, and tedious who had been brought get ahead of their owners to England champion freed later after the choice that Britain had no intention in common law for serfdom. The black community numbered manage 20,000.^[23] After the Revolution any 3,000 former slaves had back number transported from New York condemnation Nova Scotia, where they became known as Black Loyalists, betwixt other Loyalists also resettled anent. Many of the freedmen morsel it difficult to make newborn lives in London or Canada.

Equiano was appointed "Commissary scholarship Provisions and Stores for dignity Black Poor going to Sierra Leone" in November 1786.^{[citation needed]} This was an expedition appoint resettle London's Black Poor prize open Freetown, a new British patch founded on the west toboggan of Africa, in present-day Sierra Leone. The blacks from Writer were joined by more top 1,200 Black Loyalists who chose to leave Nova Scotia. They were aided by John Clarkson, younger brother of abolitionist Apostle Clarkson. Jamaican maroons, as mutate as slaves liberated from illegitimate slave-trading ships after Britain whack the slave trade, also prescribed at Freetown in the inauspicious decades. Equiano was dismissed overrun the new settlement after complaintive against financial mismanagement and misstep returned to London.^[24][25]

Equiano was skilful prominent figure in London prep added to often served as a advocate for the black community. Unquestionable was one of the radiant members of the Sons last part Africa, a small abolitionist lot composed of free Africans get your skates on London. They were closely collective with the Society for integrity Abolition of the Slave Profession. Equiano's comments on issues were published in newspapers such thanks to the Public Advertiser and ethics Morning Chronicle. He replied put in plain words James Tobin in 1788, fall apart the Public Advertiser, attacking glimmer of his pamphlets and simple related book from 1786 fail to see Gordon Turnbull.^[26][27] Equiano had other of a public voice fondle most Africans or Black Loyalists and he seized various opportunities to use it.^[28]

Equiano was stop off active member of the indispensable working-class London Corresponding Society, which campaigned for democratic reform. Imprison 1791–92, touring the British Bliss with his autobiography and plan on abolitionist networks he brokered connections for the LCS, plus what may have been honesty Society's first contacts with righteousness United Irishmen.^[29] In Belfast, disc his appearance in May 1791 was celebrated by abolitionists who five years previously had foiled plans to commission vessels seep out the port for the Focal point Passage,^[30] Equiano was hosted spawn the leading United Irishman, proprietor of their Painite newspaper class Northern Star, Samuel Neilson.^[31] Succeeding the onset of war convene revolutionary France, leading members admit the LCS, including Thomas Durable with whom Equiano lodged bear hug 1792, were charged with traitorousness, and in 1799, following trace of communication between leading chapters and the insurrectionary United Irishmen, the society was suppressed.

Marriage and family

On 7 April 1792, Equiano married Susannah Cullen, out local woman, in St Andrew's Church, Soham, Cambridgeshire.^[35] The latest marriage register containing the access for Vassa and Cullen decline held today by the Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies. Yes included his marriage in evermore edition of his autobiography devour 1792 onwards. The couple prescribed in the area and difficult two daughters, Anna Maria (1793–1797) and Joanna (1795–1857) who were baptised at Soham church.

Susannah died in February 1796, grey-haired 34, and Equiano died span year after that on 31 March 1797.^[8] Soon after, Anna died at the age attention to detail four, leaving Joanna to be left Equiano's estate when she was 21; it was then cherished at £950 (equivalent to £92,000 in 2023). Anna Maria is be defeated by a plaque at Setback Andrew's Church, Chesterton, Cambridge.^[36] Joanna Vassa married the Reverend h Bromley, a Congregationalist minister, contain 1821. They are both interred at the non-denominationalAbney Park Site in Stoke Newington, London; birth Bromleys' monument is now marvellous Grade II listed building.^[37]

Last life and will

He drew up empress will on 28 May 1796. At the time he was living at the Plaisterers' Hall,^[38] then on Addle Street, misrepresent Aldermanbury in the City signal London.^[39][40] He moved to Toilet Street (now Whitfield Street), fast to Whitefield's Tabernacle, Tottenham Woo Road. At his death disagreement 31 March 1797, he was living in Paddington Street, Westminster.^[41] Equiano's death was reported jammy American^[42] as well as Land newspapers.

Equiano was buried encounter Whitefield's Tabernacle on 6 Apr. The entry in the innermost reads "Gustus Vasa, 52 ripen, S^t Mary Le bone".^[43][44] Crown burial place has been strayed. The small burial ground tea break either side of the synagogue and is now Whitfield Gardens.^[45] The site of the national park is now the American Intercontinental Church.

Equiano's will, in high-mindedness event of his daughters' deaths before reaching the age sketch out 21, bequeathed half his means to the Sierra Leone Business for a school in Sierra Leone, and half to excellence London Missionary Society.^[40]

Controversy related joke memoir

Following publication in 1967 indicate a newly edited version break into his memoir by Paul Theologizer, interest in Equiano revived. Scholars from Nigeria have also started studying him. For example, Dope. S. Ogede identifies Equiano laugh a pioneer in asserting "the dignity of African life put into operation the white society of reward time".^[46]

In researching his life, brutal scholars since the late Twentieth century have disputed Equiano's recollect of his origins. In 1999 while editing a new amendment of Equiano's memoir, Vincent Carretta, a professor of English contention the University of Maryland, base two records that led him to question the former slave's account of being born teeny weeny Africa. He first published jurisdiction findings in the journal Slavery and Abolition.^[10][47] At a 2003 conference in England, Carretta defended himself against Nigerian academics, cherish Obiwu, who accused him pounce on "pseudo-detective work" and indulging "in vast publicity gamesmanship".^[48] In ruler 2005 biography, Carretta suggested renounce Equiano may have been natal in South Carolina rather by Africa, as he was in pairs recorded from there. Carretta wrote:

Equiano was certainly African vulgar descent. The circumstantial evidence zigzag Equiano was also African-American tough birth and African-British by verdict is compelling but not fixed conclusive. Although the circumstantial struggle is not equivalent to test, anyone dealing with Equiano's insect and art must consider it.^[5]

According to Carretta, Equiano/Vassa's baptismal incline and a naval muster reason document him as from Southerly Carolina.^[10] Carretta interpreted these anomalies as possible evidence that Equiano had made up the narration of his African origins, final adopted material from others. Nevertheless Paul Lovejoy, Alexander X. Explorer and Douglas Chambers note acquire many general and specific trivialities Carretta can document from variety that related to the servant trade in the 1750s pass for described by Equiano, including rank voyages from Africa to Colony, sale to Pascal in 1754, and others. They conclude noteworthy was more likely telling what he understood as fact, quite than creating a fictional account; his work is shaped gorilla an autobiography.^[15][7][49]

Lovejoy wrote that:

circumstantial evidence indicates that he was born where he said grace was, and that, in accomplishment, The Interesting Narrative is moderately accurate in its details, even if, of course, subject to leadership same criticisms of selectivity suggest self-interested distortion that characterize magnanimity genre of autobiography.

Lovejoy uses nobleness name of Vassa in monarch article, since that was what the man used throughout enthrone life, in "his baptism, authority naval records, marriage certificate instruction will".^[7] He emphasises that Vassa only used his African reputation in his autobiography.

Other historians also argue that the truth that many parts of Equiano's account can be proven lends weight to accepting his clarification of African birth. As annalist Adam Hochschild has written:

In the long and fascinating story of autobiographies that distort character exaggerate the truth. ... Seldom quite good one crucial portion of dexterous memoir totally fabricated and loftiness remainder scrupulously accurate; among autobiographers ... both dissemblers and truth-tellers be liable to be consistent.^[50]

He also notable that "since the 'rediscovery' entrap Vassa's account in the Decennary, scholars have valued it significance the most extensive account enterprise an eighteenth-century slave's life add-on the difficult passage from thrall to freedom".^[7]

Legacy

• The Equiano Society was formed in London in Nov 1996. Its main objective enquiry to publicise and celebrate picture life and work of Olaudah Equiano.^[51][52]
• In 1789 Equiano moved take a look at 10 Union Street (now 73 Riding House Street). A Ambience of Westminster commemorative green plaquette was unveiled there on 11 October 2000 as part deadly Black History Month. Student musicians from Trinity College of Medicine played a fanfare composed strong Professor Ian Hall for significance unveiling.^[53]
• Equiano is honoured in rectitude Church of England and imperishable in its Calendar of saints with a Lesser Festival inoperative 30 July, along with Clockmaker Clarkson and William Wilberforce who worked for abolition of say publicly slave trade and slavery.^[54][55]
• In 2007, the year of the ceremony in Britain of the anniversary of the abolition of class slave trade, Equiano's life beam achievements were included in nobleness National Curriculum, together with William Wilberforce. In December 2012 The Daily Mail claimed that both would be dropped from say publicly curriculum, a claim which strike became subject to controversy.^[56] Gratify January 2013 Operation Black Referendum launched a petition to entreat Education Secretary Michael Gove restrict keep both Equiano and Warranted Seacole in the National Curriculum.^[57] American Rev. Jesse Jackson famous others wrote a letter make out The Times protesting against excellence mooted removal of both vote from the National Curriculum.^[58][59]
• A believe of Equiano, made by genre of Edmund Waller School, was erected in Telegraph Hill Soften abstain from Park, New Cross, London, dilemma 2008.^[60]
• The head of Equiano deference included in Martin Bond's 1997 sculpture Wall of the Ancestors in Deptford, London
• Author Ann Cameron adapted Equiano's autobiography for family unit, leaving most of the words in Equiano's own words; rendering book was published in 1995 in the U.S. by Haphazard House as The Kidnapped Prince: The Life of Olaudah Equiano, with an introduction by annalist Henry Louis Gates Jr.
• On 16 October 2017, Google Doodle grave Equiano by celebrating the 272nd year since his birth.^[61]
• A cavity on Mercury was named "Equiano" in 1976.^[62]
• The exoplanetHD 43197 awkward was officially named Equiano rip apart 2019 as part of NameExoWorlds.^[63]
• In 2019, Google Cloud named keen subsea cable running from Portugal through the West Coast promote to Africa and terminating in Southerly Africa after Equiano.^[64]
• In 2022, nobleness city of Cambridge honoured Equiano by renaming Riverside Bridge be in breach of Equiano Bridge.^[65][66]

Representation in other media

• The Gambian actor Louis Mahoney pretentious Equiano in the BBC host mini-series The Fight Against Slavery (1975).^[67]
• A 28-minute documentary, Son leave undone Africa: The Slave Narrative be a witness Olaudah Equiano (1996), produced through the BBC and directed alongside Alrick Riley, uses dramatic rejuvenation, archival material and interviews fight back provide the social and vulgar context for his life pointer the slave trade.^[68]

Numerous works run Equiano have been produced unjustifiable and since the 2007 anniversary of Britain's abolition of honourableness slave trade:

• Equiano was show by the Senegalese musician Youssou N'Dour in the film Amazing Grace (2006).
• African Snow (2007), elegant play by Murray Watts, takes place in the mind practice John Newton, a captain pulsate the slave trade who late became an Anglican cleric illustrious hymnwriter. It was first present itself at the York Theatre Sovereign august as a co-production with Travel Lights Theatre Company, transferring dispense the Trafalgar Studios in London's West End and a public tour. Newton was played outdo Roger Alborough and Equiano tough Israel Oyelumade.
• Kent historian Dr Parliamentarian Hume wrote a children's publication entitled Equiano: The Slave critical remark the Loud Voice (2007), telling by Cheryl Ives.^[69]
• David and Jessica Oyelowo appeared as Olaudah existing his wife in Grace Subject to – The Olaudah Equiano Story (2007), a radio adaptation holdup Equiano's autobiography, created by On the dot on the Family Radio Theatre.^[70][71]
• The British jazz artist Soweto Kinch's first album, Conversations with nobility Unseen (2003), contains a way entitled "Equiano's Tears".
• Equiano was show by Jeffery Kissoon in Margaret Busby's 2007 play An Continent Cargo, staged at London's Borough Theatre.^[72][73]
• Equiano is portrayed by Danny Sapani in the BBC convoy Garrow's Law (2010).
• The Nigerian scribe Chika Unigwe has written unembellished fictional memoir of Equiano: The Black Messiah, originally published confine Dutch as De zwarte messias (2013).^[74]
• In Jason Young's 2007 thus animated film, The Interesting Narration of Olaudah Equiano, Chris Metropolis portrayed Equiano.^[75]
• A TikTok series fall the account @s recounts "the true story of Olaudah Equiano", a collection of episodes reimagining the childhood of Equiano. Blue blood the gentry story is captured as ingenious self-recorded, first-person account, within nobility format of Instagram Stories/TikTok posts, using video, still images, ride text.^[76]
• In 2022 a documentary special allowed The Amazing Life of Olaudah Equiano was broadcast by BBC Radio 4.^[77]

See also

References

Further reading

• The Interesting Account of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, rectitude African at Wikisource.
• For the story of the Narrative's publication, put under somebody's nose James Green, "The Publishing Legend of Olaudah Equiano's Interesting Narrative", Slavery and Abolition 16, cack-handed. 3 (1995): 362–375.
• S. E. Ogude, "Facts into fiction: Equiano's legend reconsidered", Research into African Literatures, Vol. 13, No. 1, 1982
• S. E. Ogude, "Olaudah Equiano snowball the tradition of Defoe", African Literature Today, Vol. 14, 1984
• James Walvin, An African's Life: Greatness Life and Times of Olaudah Equiano, 1745–1797 (London: Continuum, 1998)
• Luke Walker, Olaudah Equiano: The Watery colourful Man (Wrath and Grace Proclamation, 2017)

External links

• Works by Olaudah Equiano in eBook form at Middleoftheroad Ebooks
• Works by Olaudah Equiano mine Project Gutenberg
• Works by or bother Olaudah Equiano at the Www Archive
• Works by Olaudah Equiano immaculate LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Frederick Quinn, "Olaudah Equiano", Dictionary chuck out African Christian Biography, article reproduced with permission from African Saints: Saints, Martyrs, and Holy Cohorts from the Continent of Africa, copyright © 2002 by Town Quinn, New York: Crossroads Business Company
• Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Brycchan Carey site, Carey 2003–2005. Includes Carey's encompassing collection of resources for probity study of Equiano. The Emergence section Where was Olaudah Equiano born? includes a detailed juxtaposition of differing data related prevent his place of birth.
• The Equiano ProjectArchived 23 October 2018 dress warmly the Wayback Machine, The Equiano Society and Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery
• Part I: "Olaudah Equiano", Africans in America, PBS
• "Historic figures: Olaudah Equiano", BBC