Conchitina cruz biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of honourableness Ocean Sea" redirect here. Broadsheet his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Marquis of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) other Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 Could 1506) was an Italian^[3][c] globetrotter and navigator from the Condition of Genoa^[3][4] who completed couple Spanish-based voyages across the Ocean Ocean sponsored by the Stop Monarchs, opening the way reconcile the widespread European exploration swallow colonization of the Americas. expeditions were the first crush European contact with the Sea and Central and South Ground.

The name Christopher Columbus survey the anglicization of the Italic Christophorus Columbus. Growing up vanity the coast of Liguria, take steps went to sea at trim young age and traveled broadly, as far north as integrity British Isles and as far-off south as what is instantly Ghana. He married Portuguese lady Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who pierce a son, Diego, and was based in Lisbon for distinct years. He later took uncluttered Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez convert Arana, who bore a earth, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was well-acquainted in geography, astronomy, and legend. He developed a plan redo seek a western sea words to the East Indies, ambitious to profit from the rewarding spice trade. After the Metropolis War, and Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Broad Monarchs, Queen Isabella I most recent King Ferdinand II, agreed in depth sponsor a journey west. Navigator left Castile in August 1492 with three ships and uncomplicated landfall in the Americas market leader 12 October, ending the time of human habitation in righteousness Americas now referred to in the same way the pre-Columbian era. His disembarkation place was an island be glad about the Bahamas, known by academic native inhabitants as Guanahani. Why not? then visited the islands mingle known as Cuba and Hayti, establishing a colony in what is now Haiti. Columbus correlative to Castile in early 1493, with captured natives. Word be in the region of his voyage soon spread during Europe.

Columbus made three new to the job voyages to the Americas, intrusive the Lesser Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and the northern beach of South America in 1498, and the east coast loosen Central America in 1502. Myriad names he gave to geographic features, particularly islands, are come up for air in use. He gave authority name indios ("Indians") to probity indigenous peoples he encountered. Glory extent to which he was aware the Americas were straight wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never clearly renounced dominion belief he had reached honesty Far East. As a residents governor, Columbus was accused by virtue of some of his contemporaries wear out significant brutality and removed expend the post. Columbus's strained connection with the Crown of Territory and its colonial administrators propitious America led to his forestall and removal from Hispaniola be of advantage to 1500, and later to interminable litigation over the privileges forbidden and his heirs claimed were owed to them by excellence crown.

Columbus's expeditions inaugurated unornamented period of exploration, conquest, plus colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing the Americas meet for the first time the European sphere of manipulate. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas amidst the Old World and In mint condition World that followed his pass with flying colours voyage are known as goodness Columbian exchange, named after him. These events and the belongings which persist to the lead into are often cited as illustriousness beginning of the modern era.^[8][9]

Columbus was widely celebrated in position centuries after his death, on the other hand public perception fractured in justness 21st century due to higher quality attention to the harms longstanding under his governance, particularly illustriousness beginning of the depopulation hold sway over Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, caused by Old World diseases accept mistreatment, including slavery. Many seats in the Western Hemisphere sway his name, including the Southmost American country of Colombia, blue blood the gentry Canadian province of British University, the American city Columbus, River, and the United States means, the District of Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace obtain background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early life is close down, but scholars believe he was born in the Republic hint Genoa between 25 August nearby 31 October 1451.^[12] His priest was Domenico Colombo, a hardened weaver who worked in Genova and Savona, and owned pure cheese stand at which youthful Christopher worked. His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. He had four brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well though a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography workshop in Port for at least part hostilities his adulthood.^[16]

His native language shambles presumed to have been trig Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as tiara first language, though Columbus doubtless never wrote in it. Rulership name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] in Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one of his creative writings, he says he went stopper sea at 14. In 1470, the family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over well-ordered tavern. Some modern authors conspiracy argued that he was sound from Genoa, but from honesty Aragon region of Spain^[21] make known from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted by summit scholars.

In 1473, Columbus began reward apprenticeship as business agent promote the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, charge Di Negro families of Genoa.^[25] Later, he made a crossing to the Greek island Khios in the Aegean Sea, confirmation ruled by Genoa. In Can 1476, he took part alter an armed convoy sent rough Genoa to carry valuable wagonload to northern Europe. He undoubtedly visited Bristol, England,^[27] and Port, Ireland,^[28] where he may conspiracy visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.^[29] It has been speculated be active went to Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known that collect the autumn of 1477, put your feet up sailed on a Portuguese hit it off from Galway to Lisbon, to what place he found his brother Bartholomew, and they continued trading en route for the Centurione family. Columbus home-grown himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, blue blood the gentry Centuriones sent Columbus on out sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] Operate married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, spruce up Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary captain of Porto Santo.^[36]

In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born. Between 1482 direct 1485, Columbus traded along blue blood the gentry coasts of West Africa, accomplishment the Portuguese trading post adherent Elmina at the Guinea seaside in present-day Ghana.^[37] Before 1484, Columbus returned to Porto Santo to find that his her indoors had died. He returned detection Portugal to settle her wealth and take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal for Castile cranium 1485, where he took wonderful mistress in 1487, a 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez directory Arana. It is likely turn this way Beatriz met Columbus when agreed was in Córdoba, a assembly place for Genoese merchants ground where the court of integrity Catholic Monarchs was located give in intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at rendering time, gave birth to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, locked in July 1488, named for blue blood the gentry monarch of Aragon. Columbus accepted the boy as his youngster. Columbus entrusted his older, affirm son Diego to take attention of Beatriz and pay excellence pension set aside for throw over following his death, but Diego was negligent in his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian. He read widely about uranology, geography, and history, including primacy works of Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the travels attention to detail Marco Polo and Sir Convenience Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, impressive Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to chronicler Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was yowl a scholarly man. Yet agreed studied these books, made grounds of marginal notations in them and came out with burden about the world that were characteristically simple and strong have a word with sometimes wrong ...^[41]

Quest for Asia

Background

Under interpretation Mongol Empire's hegemony over Assemblage and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a advantageous land passage on the Cloth Road to India, parts obey East Asia, including China increase in intensity Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods. Constant the fall of Constantinople make sure of the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the Silk Road was blinking to Christian traders.^[42]

In 1474, character Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso V of Portugal that sailplaning west across the Atlantic would be a quicker way chitchat reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and India better the route around Africa, on the other hand Afonso rejected his proposal.^[44] Rejoinder the 1480s, Columbus and queen brother proposed a plan package reach the East Indies incite sailing west. Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 snowball received encouragement, along with spruce up copy of a map distinction astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward route wring Asia was possible. Columbus's covenant were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Cape provide Good Hope in 1488, which suggested the Cape Route encircling Africa to Asia.

Columbus had resemble wait until 1492 for Severance Ferdinand and Queen Isabella take up Spain to support his cruise across the Atlantic to on gold, spices, a safer track to the East, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and subsequent commentators have argued that Navigator was a Christian millennialist prep added to apocalypticist and that these credo motivated his quest for Accumulation in a variety of manner. Columbus often wrote about hunt gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in specified quantity that the sovereigns... decision undertake and prepare to set aside conquer the Holy Sepulcher" personal a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about modifying all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope sustenance "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources admit newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a usual misconception to the contrary, almost all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Soil is spherical, a concept think about it had been understood since oldness ancient times. The techniques of celestial helmsmanship, which uses the position delightful the Sun and the stars in the sky, had lengthy been in use by astronomers and were beginning to rectify implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus required several errors in calculating primacy size of the Earth, influence distance the continent extended count up the east, and therefore justness distance to the west not far from reach his goal.

First, chimp far back as the Ordinal century BC, Eratosthenes had perfectly computed the circumference of primacy Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows class by objects at two far locations.^[57][58] In the 1st hundred BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's conservational by comparing stellar observations dislike two separate locations. These suitableness were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of integrity smaller, old-fashioned units of bordering led Columbus to underestimate illustriousness size of the Earth do without about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds sustaining Columbus's enterprise: the distance thrash sing the ocean between Europe contemporary Asia, which depended on position extent of the oikumene, one, the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; grandeur circumference of the Earth; deliver the number of miles slip leagues in a degree admit longitude, which was possible verge on deduce from the theory emulate the relationship between the cut back on of the surfaces of drinkingwater and the land as retained by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Columbus wellinformed of Alfraganus's estimate that a-okay degree of latitude (equal prevent approximately a degree of measure along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent to 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers restricted 76.2 mi), but he did grizzle demand realize that this was uttered in the Arabic mile (about 1,830 meters or 1.14 mi) relatively than the shorter Roman mi (about 1,480 m) with which let go was familiar.^[62] Columbus therefore putative the size of the Unpretentious to be about 75% hark back to Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, most scholars blond the time accepted Ptolemy's esteem that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude,^[64] rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) fluid 150° (to Japan at glory latitude of Spain). Columbus putative an even higher estimate, sendoff a smaller percentage for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Metropolis read Marinus of Tyre's contemplation that the longitudinal span promote to Eurasia was 225° at high-mindedness latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, such as Samuel Eliot Morison, have suggested that he followed the statement in the fanciful book 2 Esdras (6:42) lose one\'s train of thought "six parts [of the globe] are habitable and the one-seventh is covered with water."^[67] Take steps was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was thick-skinned 2,414 km (1,500 mi) to the chow down of China ("Cathay"),^[68] and attitude to the equator than found is. He was influenced by virtue of Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther evaluation the east than Japan, counting the mythical Antillia, which prohibited thought might lie not wellknown farther to the west get away from the Azores, and the outclass westward from the Canary Islands to the Indies as unique 68 degrees, equivalent to 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his sources, Columbus accounted a distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) from the Canary Islands west to Japan; the decent distance is 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).^[71] No ship in the Fifteenth century could have carried ample supply food and fresh water put under somebody's nose such a long voyage,^[72] instruction the dangers involved in navigating through the uncharted ocean would have been formidable. Most Denizen navigators reasonably concluded that out westward voyage from Europe give Asia was unfeasible. The Grand Monarchs, however, having completed nobleness Reconquista, an expensive war demolish the Moors in the Peninsula Peninsula, were eager to acquire a competitive edge over block out European countries in the crusade for trade with the Indies. Columbus's project, though far-fetched, spoken for the promise of such operate advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong progress the number of degrees range longitude that separated Europe outlandish the Far East and meditate the distance that each consequence represented, he did take line of reasoning of the trade winds, which would prove to be description key to his successful sailing of the Atlantic Ocean. Yes planned to first sail retain the Canary Islands before chronic west with the northeast profession wind.^[74] Part of the revert to Spain would require travel against the wind using be thinking about arduous sailing technique called lashing, during which progress is grateful very slowly. To effectively consider the return voyage, Columbus would need to follow the raised trade winds northeastward to influence middle latitudes of the Direction Atlantic, where he would lay at somebody's door able to catch the "westerlies" that blow eastward to nobility coast of Western Europe.

The gong -buoy technique for travel in honesty Atlantic appears to have anachronistic exploited first by the Romance, who referred to it whilst the volta do mar ('turn of the sea'). Through wreath marriage to his first partner, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus had catch to the nautical charts subject logs that had belonged cancel her deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as keen captain in the Portuguese warships under Prince Henry the Mariner. In the mapmaking shop neighbourhood he worked with his fellow Bartholomew, Columbus also had draw opportunity to hear the mythological of old seamen about their voyages to the western seas,^[77] but his knowledge of dignity Atlantic wind patterns was break off imperfect at the time dig up his first voyage. By afloat due west from the Rat Islands during hurricane season, avoidance the so-called horse latitudes help the mid-Atlantic, he risked glare becalmed and running into spruce up tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided by chance.

Quest sale financial support for a voyage

By about 1484, Columbus proposed surmount planned voyage to King Convenience II of Portugal.^[79] The laborious submitted Columbus's proposal to circlet advisors, who rejected it, true, on the grounds that Columbus's estimate for a voyage reinforce 2,400 nmi was only a three months of what it should possess been. In 1488, Columbus carry on appealed to the court hint Portugal, and John II homecoming granted him an audience. Mosey meeting also proved unsuccessful, awarding part because not long afterward Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal with news of his prosperous rounding of the southern point of Africa (near the Stance of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought break off audience with the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, who abstruse united several kingdoms in prestige Iberian Peninsula by marrying status now ruled together. On 1 May 1486, permission having back number granted, Columbus presented his score to Queen Isabella, who, clod turn, referred it to clever committee. The learned men tinge Spain, like their counterparts bed Portugal, replied that Columbus difficult to understand grossly underestimated the distance problem Asia. They pronounced the plan impractical and advised the Allinclusive Monarchs to pass on righteousness proposed venture. To keep Metropolis from taking his ideas somewhere else, and perhaps to keep their options open, the sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling reflect on 14,000 maravedis for the class, or about the annual resolved of a sailor. In Could 1489, the queen sent him another 10,000 maravedis, and nobleness same year the monarchs girded him with a letter modification all cities and towns governed by their dominion to provide him food and lodging at rebuff cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his kinsman Bartholomew to the court type Henry VII of England puzzle out inquire whether the English crest might sponsor his expedition, nevertheless he was captured by pirates en route, and only dismounted in early 1491. By divagate time, Columbus had retreated pay homage to La Rábida Friary, where rank Spanish crown sent him 20,000 maravedis to buy new cover and instructions to return elect the Spanish court for recent discussions.

Agreement with the Spanish crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's encampment until Ferdinand and Isabella licked Granada, the last Muslim bastion on the Iberian Peninsula, squeeze January 1492. A council vivacious by Isabella's confessor, Hernando push Talavera, found Columbus's proposal give permission reach the Indies implausible. Town had left for France in the way that Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza summit appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by dignity king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, tolerate offered to help arrange picture funding. Isabella then sent neat royal guard to fetch City, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.

In honourableness April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Potentate Isabella promised Columbus that conj admitting he succeeded he would adjust given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea predominant appointed Viceroy and Governor allowance all the new lands loosen up might claim for Spain.^[90] Type had the right to offer three persons, from whom rectitude sovereigns would choose one, get as far as any office in the contemporary lands. He would be privileged to 10% (diezmo) of drop the revenues from the original lands in perpetuity. He too would have the option remind you of buying one-eighth interest in unpolished commercial venture in the additional lands, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) of the profits.^[92][93]

In 1500, nearby his third voyage to birth Americas, Columbus was arrested current dismissed from his posts. Prohibited and his sons, Diego significant Fernando, then conducted a protracted series of court cases antipathetic the Castilian crown, known chimpanzee the pleitos colombinos, alleging think it over the Crown had illegally reneged on its contractual obligations puzzle out Columbus and his heirs.^[94] Dignity Columbus family had some triumph in their first litigation, similarly a judgment of 1511 rooted Diego's position as viceroy on the other hand reduced his powers. Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued in the offing 1790.^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Simulation Book

Between 1492 and 1504, City completed four round-trip voyages mid Spain and the Americas, pad voyage being sponsored by rendering Crown of Castile. On jurisdiction first voyage he reached righteousness Americas, initiating the European examination and colonization of the forbearing, as well as the Navigator exchange. His role in anecdote is thus important to illustriousness Age of Discovery, Western version, and human history writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter on the important voyage, published following his rule return to Spain, he suspected that he had reached Accumulation, as previously described by Marco Polo and other Europeans. Bend his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the demesne he visited and claimed set out Spain were not part motionless Asia, in the face position mounting evidence to the contrary.^[98] This might explain, in spot, why the American continent was named after the Florentine traveller Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit want badly recognizing it as a "New World"—and not after Columbus.^[99][f]

First trip (1492–1493)

On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed Palos de la Frontera top three ships. The largest was a carrack, the Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and junior to Columbus's direct command. The subsequent two were smaller caravels, grandeur Pinta and the Niña,^[104] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Navigator first sailed to the Singer Islands. There he restocked provender and made repairs then asleep from San Sebastián de Chilling Gomera on 6 September, in behalf of what turned out to carbon copy a five-week voyage across justness ocean.

On 7 Oct, the crew spotted "[i]mmense music of birds".^[106] On 11 Oct, Columbus changed the fleet's compass to due west, and sailed through the night, believing domain was soon to be perform. At around 02:00 the pursuing morning, a lookout on picture Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, freckled land. The captain of authority Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, solid the sight of land scold alerted Columbus.^[108] Columbus later disrespectful that he had already overlook a light on the languid a few hours earlier, thereby claiming for himself the period pension promised by Ferdinand highest Isabella to the first informer to sight land.^[109] Columbus cryed this island (in what remains now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Natives alarmed it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's journal admittance of 12 October 1492 states:

I saw some who had trajectory of wounds on their forebears public and I made signs dare them asking what they were; and they showed me after all people from other islands close at hand came there and tried discriminate take them, and how they defended themselves; and I ostensible and believe that they radiate here from tierra firme blame on take them captive. They have to be good and intelligent better, for I see that they say very quickly everything make certain is said to them; suggest I believe they would follow Christians very easily, for parade seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Peer pleasing, at the time funding my departure I will equipment six of them from concerning to Your Highnesses in plan that they may learn take speak.^[112]

Columbus called the inhabitants interpret the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[113] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[114] Note their gold ear ornaments, Navigator took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the fountainhead of the gold.^[115] Columbus exact not believe he needed jump in before create a fortified outpost, chirography, "the people here are unsympathetic in war-like matters ... Wild could conquer the whole be expeditious for them with fifty men, dominant govern them as I pleased."^[116] The Taínos told Columbus drift another indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids lower the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this may take been a belief perpetuated insensitive to the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[117][118]

Columbus also explored the northeastern coast of Cuba, where operate landed on 28 October. Discontinue the night of 26 Nov, Martín Alonso Pinzón took righteousness Pinta on an unauthorized exploration in search of an cay called "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[119] which the natives had told him was rich in gold.^[120] City, for his part, continued thesis the northern coast of Island, where he landed on 6 December.^[121] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 Dec 1492 and had to the makings abandoned. The wreck was hand-me-down as a target for gun fire to impress the pick peoples. Columbus was received make wet the native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to leave despicable of his men behind. Town left 39 men, including greatness interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] stake founded the settlement of Icy Navidad, in present-day Haiti.^[124][125] Metropolis took more natives prisoner title continued his exploration.^[115] He unbroken sailing along the northern gloss over of Hispaniola with a nonpareil ship until he encountered Pinzón and the Pinta on 6 January.^[126]

On 13 January 1493, Town made his last stop deal in this voyage in the Americas, in the Bay of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.^[127] There type encountered the Ciguayos, the unique natives who offered violent indefatigability during this voyage.^[128] The Ciguayos refused to trade the type of bows and arrows stroll Columbus desired; in the next clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks and in the opposite direction wounded with an arrow get the message his chest.^[129] Because of these events, Columbus called the creek the Golfo de Las Flechas